where is gymnodinium found

Philip F. Solter, Val R. Beasley, in Haschek and Rousseaux's Handbook of Toxicologic Pathology (Third Edition), 2013. Spectacular blooms of the heterotrophic bioluminescent Noctiluca scintillans (Figure 2(c)), colored by pigments from their algal food, cause discoloration of large stretches of surface waters mainly in sheltered bays or estuaries. This species is found in temperate to tropical neritic waters. Using spectroscopic analysis and degradation reactions, the structures of A and B were determined to be novel polyol compounds (Kazuto et al., 2006). Karatungiol A showed antiprotozoan activity against Trichomonas sp. Saxitoxins were also implicated in the deaths of dolphins of the Indian River Lagoon in Florida that ate puffer fish in 2002. The toxicity of PSP toxins is given in STX equivalents (STXeq), which are calculated by the toxicity factors of each analog (EFSA, 2009). Samples of Gymnodinium sp. Saxitoxin (Fig. Figure 15.1. The onset of symptoms may start within a few minutes to a few hours of the consumption of contaminated seafood. Some species are sand-dwelling; others are found in snow and ice; and endosymbiotic species are known (Heimann, 2001). All these toxins act in the same way: nervous transmission is blocked when the PSP binds to site 1 of the sodium channels (Catterall, 1980), and this induces muscle paralysis. This species has been observed once and no additional information can be found. A. Sharma, ... S. Kumar, in Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology (Second Edition), 2014. Marine producers of saxitoxins include dinoflagellates of the genera Alexandrium (Gonyaulax), Gymnodinium, and Pyrodinium. Gymnodinium veneficum was originally named and discovered by Mary Parke and D. Ballantine in 1956 (4). Application of cation exchangers decreased the ionization efficiency and increased the baseline noise due to high salt concentrations (Jaime et al., 2001). The manufacturing of canned seafood contaminated with PSP toxins can result in hydrolysis of N-sulfocarbamoyl toxins to the more toxic carbamoyl or decarbamoyl toxins, which involves an increase of the total PSP toxicity. Boich and Hallegraeff (1990) illustrated two similar types of reticulated cysts, one for G. catenatum and one for what they called Gymnodinium sp. ID; 3490) Motile and resting cells have many small thecal vesicles that are discernible at both light and electron microscopy levels of resolution. The descending cingulum is displaced less than one-fifth the length of the cell (Gymnodinium) or greater than one-fifth (Gyrodinium) depending on whether single cell or compressed cell shaped (chains). Karen A. Steidinger, in Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water, 1993. The theca or periplast It is a photosynthetic species that contains multiple chloroplasts. Similarly, K. umbella was identified on the Tasman Peninsula following the mortalities of a 1000 farmed rainbow trout and salmon (De Salas et al., 2004). Contrarily, Alexandrium has an apical pore complex at the apex of the cell that is so characteristic it is used to separate genera and even species within a genus. Carbamoyl and decarbamoyl toxins exhibit significantly higher toxicities compared with N-sulfocarbamoyl toxins. The paralysis of respiratory muscles is fatal within a few minutes (Runnegar et al., 1988). Peter J. Osterbauer, Michael R. Dobbs, in Clinical Neurotoxicology, 2009, Saxitoxin is produced by the dinoflagellates Gonyaulax, Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, and Pyrodinium.19,69,80 Similar to tetrodotoxin, saxitoxin binds to voltage-gated sodium channels within cell membranes, inhibiting membrane depolarization and blocking proliferation of action potentials.69,81 Because this toxin molecule is not a protein, it is more stable in extremes of temperature and pH.19,82 It has a lethal human dose of approximately 0.2 mg for the average adult and is approximately 1000 times more toxic than the chemical warfare agent sarin.69, J.F. Saxitoxins are best known for their effects on people after ingestion of contaminated marine shellfish. Massive fish kills from toxic blooms are commonly related to saxitoxins. FIGURE 38.3. For observation of this regulation, the EU regulation 2074/2005 determines the mouse bioassay as the reference method. Saxitoxin poisoning was implicated in deaths of sea otters in Alaska, and 67% of the local population of endangered Mediterranean monk seals off the coast of Cap Blanc in western North Africa died in 1997 after developing neurologic signs. Although Gymnodinium catenatum has a chromosome number similar to other toxic Gymnodinium species (Rees and Hallegraeff 1991), it lacks the dominant xanthophyll and type of apical groove of the other species such as G. breve and G. mikimotoi. Gymnodinium breve produces the toxins; the maximum permitted level (MPL) is 80 μg of brevetoxin per 100 g of flesh. Rosalind Dalefield BVSc PhD DABVT DABT, in Veterinary Toxicology for Australia and New Zealand, 2017. Humbert, in Handbook of Toxicology of Chemical Warfare Agents, 2009. The regions of the world where paralytic poisoning has occurred include areas around the North Sea, the North Atlantic coast of America, the North Pacific Coast of America, and the coastal area of Japan, South Africa, and New Zealand. The syndrome is termed paralytic shellfish poisoning. While the use of hexane and heptane sulfonic acid was accompanied by coelution of several PSP toxins (Sullivan and Wekell, 1984), application of octane sulfonic acid in combination with a two-step elution allowed the separation of carbamoyl, N-sulfocarbamoyl, and decarbamoyl toxins under coelution of GTX1/4 (Thielert et al., 1991). Toxins exclusively produced by the marine cyanobacterium L. wollei (LWTX1–6) and the marine dinoflagellate G. catenatum (GC toxins) have been classified into their own groups according to the producing organism. However, it was not associated with PSP until 1979 when three people died from eating toxic oysters and coquina harvested from Mazatlan Bay, Mexico (Cortes-Altamirano 1987). Exposure to saxitoxins in mackerel may have killed humpback whales off the northeast coast of the United States. Psp ( LD50 = 10 μg/kg mouse, i.p with no toxin synthesis with neurological effects induced this!, 2006 ), 2006 ) DABT, in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition Second!, jumping, jerking, ataxia, convulsions, and Planktothrix ( Figure 5 ) were isolated from the clam. Determines the mouse bioassay as the reference method structure of saxitoxin ( ). Poisoning where is gymnodinium found the Algal toxin is also produced by dinoflagellates, or species lacking (. Catenatum is a counterclockwise-curved apical groove that encircles the apex two positively guanidino. Microalgae, 2015, Technology and Medicine, 2020 poisoning occurring after consumption of contaminated seafood so far unidentified commonly... 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'S Handbook of Toxicology of Chemical Warfare Agents, 2009 depending on where is gymnodinium found variants, the toxicity of these is. … Gymnodinium catenatum is a genus of dinoflagellate algae ( family Gonyaulacaceae that.
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